Lit+Review

**Unique Needs of Target Population** Early childhood education is an extremely important part of a child's life. During early childhood, children begin to become aware of themselves and their environment. This is an ideal time to begin education of career development. Magnuson and Starr (2000) stated that it is never too early to start teaching a child about their choices in life, including the choices for their career and occupations. Teaching children early in life that they get to make decisions about their own interests and activities, helps them acquire the knowledge that this process is similar to career development. There are many theorists that begin their stages of career development at birth. Gysbers and Moore (1975, 1981), Super (1953), and Hummel and McDaniels (1982) all spoke about the first stage of development in which an individual develops self-awareness, the type of person they are going to be and learns one's own interests which may lead to decisions in career later in life (as cited in Hoffman & McDaniels, 1991). These theories express the importance of starting education early in life so that an individual attributes education as an important part of their life and helps them understand that their career is an important part of who they will become someday. Hoffman & McDaniels stated that it is important to expose elementary school children to different strategies of career development. These strategies can include individual and group counseling, counseling within the classroom setting, and counseling with the parents being involved. For elementary school counselors, career development education for the children should be a high priority for them and developing and implementing career development programs should take up much of their time. It is important for the school counselors to collaborate with the classroom teachers and the parents so that everyone is on the same page. Training the parents on the importance of career development in elementary school and how to continue this in the home is also an important aspect of the programs that need to be implemented (Hoffman & McDaniels).
 * Childhood Career Development** Constructing a comprehensive career development program for elementary-aged students requires a thorough investigation of key elements, such as unique needs of this age group, evidence-based interventions, theories that are applied to this age range, and ideas for future research. After examining these key elements, it is possible to construct a career development program that meets the needs of the elementary-aged students with evidence-based interventions that will attract elementary school children and keep their attention.

It is important to recognize that there are certain phases within the stages that children and adults go through during their understanding of career development. One of the phases that children go through at a young age is the fantasy stage (Hoffman & McDaniels, 1991). School counselors and parents understanding this phase can help children explore their career options. Auger, Blackhurst, and Wahl (2005) recognized that this occurs throughout development and asked many elementary school children what their career aspirations and career expectations are. The authors found that children often identified different careers when they were asked what they aspire to be and what they expect to be. There were no significant differences between first graders, third graders and fifth graders. The authors also found that boys often identified with sex-typed expected careers while older children often identified with more prestigious career options. This study shows that children are aware of different kinds of careers in elementary school and it is important to capitilize on this knowledge as soon as possible so it can be expanded.

**Evidence-based Interventions**    ﻿ ﻿ ﻿ According to Schulthesis (2005), early intervention and exposure to many different career options as possible enhances the child’s opportunities for success. The young and exploratory nature of elementary-age students allows the career counselor to choose from a wide variety of evidence-based interventions in order to intervene at an early age. According to Herr, Cramer, & Niles (2003), between the ages of five and ten, children are developing a sense of role-play and are learning what their needs in life are. When it comes to career planning, it is during this time when they are becoming more interested in fantasy play. Herr, Cramer, & Niles (2003) suggested that career counselors encourage children to draw a picture of the kind of person he or she is. Then, the child will explain the drawing, including things like whether their drawing shows the student to have any positive morals or values, such as honesty or friendliness. Elementary-aged children are still learning the roles of each of the occupations they are hearing about from others, so it would be beneficial for the career counselor to address this issue (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2003). He or she might create a matching game in which students would need to match pictures of the occupation and the items associated with that occupation. For instance, a student might match a picture of a doctor with a picture of a stethoscope or a picture of a baseball player with a picture of a baseball bat. This activity would encourage children to think outside the box when it comes to their interests. They may not realize the wide array of careers there are to choose from. As suggested by Herr, Cramer, & Niles (2003), another great activity for any elementary-aged student would be to play a game entitled “What’s my line?”, in which the career counselor shows a picture of two people speaking to each other, and the students must create a dialog for them based on their surroundings in the pictures. The people might be at a hospital, a farm, an office, or any other career-based setting.

At or around eleven or twelve years old, a child’s likes are becoming the major determinant of his or her aspirations for the future and the kinds of activities he or she would like to engage in (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2003). During this time, the career counselor can uncover some of these likes, by simply asking the students what they each like to do or what they each would like to be when they grow up. Using this information, the career counselor can set up a “Day in the Life of…” activity in which the student pairs up with other students of similar interests and role plays some of the major events he or she might encounter during a typical day of a person who has the occupation in which he or she is interested. Counselors might even give the group of students a list of tasks that a typical person in that occupation would accomplish in a day. This would give students more opportunities to see the unique situations one might encounter in this career.

**Application of Theories to Target Group**  ﻿ In the article "How Early Is Too Early to Begin Life Career Planning? The Importance of the Elementary School Years," Magnuson & Starr (2000) described three theories that apply to the elementary years; Gottredson, Super, and Zuker's Theories. The first theory Magnuson & Starr (2000) mentioned is Linda Gottfredson. Gottfredson says, "career development starts in childhood." Gottfredson also believes that children first learn about specific gender roles that apply to certain occupations during the elementary years. As children form their career aspirations, Gottfredson believes this process is an attempt to develop "one’s self-concept." Gottfredson's idea of "self-concept" is closely related to the second theory Maguson & Starr (2000) mentioned, which is Super's Theory. Maguson & Starr (2000) discussed principles within Super’s Theory that are related to the elementary years. The first is career preferences and self-concept. During the elementary years, career preferences are explored and consistently change. Later in adolescence, these preferences are more consistent and help to develop one’s self-concept. The next principle of Super’s theory that relates to childhood is the influence of parental occupations on children. Parent's occupations influence children’s socioeconomic status and the opportunities they will have in developing their own career. Children are also exposed to the relationship their parents have with their careers. This gives children an example of what to expect. Another principle within Super's theory is the idea that career development can be “guided” to help individuals choose a fulfilling career. Childhood is when children get their first exposure to the idea of a career and this first exposure can be guided to be a positive introduction. The next principle is Super's belief of the five life stages; both the growth and exploration stages take place during the elementary school years, where the child is growing and learning and begins to explore different career options. This process is essential in developing a self-concept and allows the child to learn from real life situations and get feedback from the environment. Schultheiss, Palma, and Manzi (2005) also focused on the growth stage within Super's theory and the nine important concepts within this stage that are important to acknowledge for elementary students career development. These nine concepts include curiosity, exploration, information, key figures, interests, locus of control, time perspective, self concept, and planfulness.

Magnuson and Starr (2000) mentioned a third theory that is applicable to the elementary years. Zuker’s Theory states that children have these internal “success sensors” that are not fully developed, but as they continue to grow and understand their own skills they begin to see how these skills can be applied to different occupations. Children also decide how they are going to fullfill their "success needs" during the early years.

**Future Considerations** A frequent theme throughout much of the literature on childhood career development is an emphasis on the need for further development of theories and research related to the specific target group of elementary school students. Wood and Kaszubowski (2008) suggested developing longitudinal studies to help identify core dimensions of childhood career development. By having a deeper understanding of the various dimensions of career development at the elementary school level, school counselors will be better able to construct and implement comprehensive career programs that address and integrate all of these dimensions. Schultheiss, Palma and Manzi (2005) also pointed out that though Super’s multiple dimensions of the growth stage lead to the development of decision making and problem solving, there has been little research on the specific origins and the process of decision making in childhood. Examining how children learn to make decisions early on may contribute additional valuable information to the field of career counseling by identifying key aspects to help children develop such decision making skills. There is also the suggestion of identifying any discrepancies among different groups of students to address any variation in career aspirations and knowledge at the elementary level, particularly in relation to gender, race and ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (Wood & Kaszubowski, 2008). Similarly, Schultheiss, Palma and Manzi (2005) suggested studying the impact of various influential factors, such as culture, self-concept, and economic factors, on the development and stability of children’s conceptions of work and their career aspirations. Identifying the impact of such influences will ultimately help the school counselor choose appropriate and relevant career development interventions that may take these factors into account.

Wood and Kaszubowski (2008) also pointed out that investigating the association between career development and academic achievement of elementary school students may help advance the field of school counseling. Demonstrating the effectiveness of career development programs and interventions at the elementary school level and indicating the connection to academic achievement may help strengthen the field of school counseling, thereby helping to ensure that students will receive career guidance throughout their overall education. Overall, more attention needs to be given to the development of appropriate interventions and elementary career development programs (Schultheiss, Palma & Manzi, 2005; Wood and Kaszubowski, 2005).

**﻿ ﻿ Conclusion ** After reviewing the available literature related to childhood career development, it is clear that there are a unique set of needs at the elementary school level that emphasizes the importance of beginning career development early on in a student’s education. Additionally, there are numerous suggestions of evidence-based interventions to incorporate into comprehensive career guidance programs for elementary schools. However, there is much emphasis on the need for additional research and development of applicable theories in relation to this specific target group.

References Auger, R.W., Blackhurst, A. E., & Wahl, K. H. (2005). The development of elementary-ages children's career aspirations and expectations. //Professional School Counseling, 8// (4), 322-329.

Herr, E.L., Cramer, S.H., & Niles, S.G. (2003). //Career guidance and counseling through the life span//. New York: Ally & Bacon.

Hoffman, L. R. & McDaniels, C. (1991). Career development in the elementary schools: A perspective of the 1990's. //Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 25// (3), 163-169.

Magnuson, C., & Starr, M. (2000). How early is too early to begin life career planning? The importance of the elementary school years. //Journal of Career Development, 27// (2), 89-101.

Schultheiss, D.E. P. (2005). Elementary career intervention programs: social action initiatives. //Journal of Career Development//, //31// (3), 185-194.

Schultheiss, D.E.P., Palma, T.V., & Manzi, A.J. (2005). Career development in middle childhood: A qualitative inquiry. //The Career Development Quarterly, 53,// 246-262.

Wood, C. & Kaszubowski, Y. (2008). The career development needs of rural elementary school students. //The Elementary School Journal, 108// (5), 431-444.